Literature Review of Buyer Behaviour Models

Literature Review of Buyer Behaviour Models The purpose of marketing is to make consumers develop an urge for a particular product even if they are not looking for the same. That is why organisations are required to understand the behaviour of customers before marketing their products in a more desirable way. Consumer behaviour is defined as the way the consumers act or behave when looking for, buying and using products (ODougherty, Haynes, Davies OConnor, 2007). Consumer behaviour is significant to businesses as they determine the nature of the prospective buyers. Knowing consumer behaviour helps business enterprises to find out the best way to advertise the products in order to attract a particular set of consumers. In the earlier times, shop keepers were able to acquire a fair understanding of consumer behaviour because they sold their products directly to the customers. However, with the increasing growth in the size of firms, opportunities of direct contact with consumers have lowered. Increasingly, managers are investing more to gain an insight on consumer behaviour. As a consequence, business and academic researchers invest more resources in studying consumer energy for the improvement of businesses. Literature Review Several academics and professional have conducted their research on consumer behaviour. A review of the literatures would include significant theories and studies in this perspective. Stimulus-Behaviour Model One of the oldest models in regards to consumer behaviour is stimulus-behaviour model. The following model propagates that marketing and other stimuli influence the buyers black box, producing certain responses (The Institute for Working Futures, n.d.). The stimuli can be of two kinds. The marketing stimuli or the marketing mix consist of 4 Ps including product, price, place and promotion. Others include economic, technological, political and cultural stimuli. All these stimuli move through the consumers black box and help them to make the product choice, brand choice, purchasing timing and purchasing amount. Figure 1: Stimulus-Behaviour Model (Source: Tyagi Kumar, 2004) Apart from this simplified model, several other models have been developed by the marketing scholars in the field of consumer behaviour. The most prominent models have been developed by John A. Howard and Jagdish N Sheth, Francesco M. Nicosia, James F. Engel, Roger D. Blackwell and David T. Kollat. The five stage model of buying process includes steps like recognizing the problems, searching for information, evaluating the alternatives, purchasing decision and post purchase behaviour of the consumers. After purchasing the products, the buyer is expected to feel some level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction regarding the product or service acquired. The number of organisational buying processes can be quite large. Product and service marketers have recognized that at every step of the buying process, the purchaser can have different requirements and various groups can get involved in the same. Buy Grid Model According to the Buy Grid model, the process of decision making within an organisation has two parts including buy phase model and buy class model. The stages in the Buy Phase model are quite similar to the buying stages discussed above. After identifying the requirements, industrial buyers pass through a number of processes including determination of requirements, specific description of the same, search for probable sources, assessment of the sources, selection of the same, establishment of order routine and appraisal of the performance feedback (Baker Hart, 2003). Figure 2: Buy Grid Model (Source: Baker Hart, 2003) Buy class has been added to the same model to create a grid. Buy class model refers to the various types of buying decisions; the decisions are mostly based on consumers experience about specific products or services. The new buying decision takes into account the products and services which have never been acquired, along with the entire process. The straight re-buy process and modified re-buy process consider less number of tasks as consumers do not need to spend time on searching for sources (Dwyer Fanner, 2008). Industrial Buying Behaviour Back in the year 1973, Sheth had proposed a model on the industrial buyers behaviour. The model is a complex one with a large number of variables integrated in it. Figure 3: An Integrated Model of Industrial Buying Behaviour (Source: Sheth, 1973) The model considers many variables. However, all of these variables hold relevance in the process that determines purchase decisions. Certain conditions are there which can be simplified depending on the situation. Prior to that, in the year 1966, Nicosia has proposed a model which included attitude, motivation and experience as the driving force behind the purchase process (Swarbrooke Horner, 2007). Buyer Seller Interaction In 1985, Campbell criticized the Sheth model for not considering the interplay between the marketing and purchasing strategies and their antecedents. Another disadvantage is that the model concentrates on the buyers side rather than paying attention to the sellers influence on buying behaviour. In contrast, an interaction model introduced by IMP group has focussed mostly on the interaction of the two parties giving almost equal importance to the characteristics of both the buyers and the sellers. According to the Campbell, the model includes three variable groups: the buyers characteristics, the product and the supplier. Figure 4: Buyer Seller Interaction (Source: Baker Hart, 2003) The above model considers few probable types of buyer and seller interaction strategies. These are competitive, cooperative and command. A joint occurrence of the above mentioned strategies can happen if both the parties have almost similar level of power and the switching cost to other suppliers is almost equal for every case. In command buying, the consumer is expected to have more power than the vendor. Cooperative buying mostly happens between the manufacturer and the distributor of the products, when cooperation is required between the two. The above model shows buyers and sellers characteristics with detailed discussion on the interaction. There are certain other concepts related to consumers buying behaviour. There are a number of people, directly and indirectly involved in the purchasing processes. The buying centre is comprised of all the people involved in the buying process. The initiator, user, buyer, influencer, decider and gatekeeper are individuals or groups involved in the various stages of the process. The initiator is the individual or group who first suggests the need of purchasing a particular product. The influencer is the individual or group, who would have his or her input in the entire process. People, controlling the information flow and access to concerned individuals in the organisations, are the gatekeepers of the entire process (Folsom Boulware, 2004). Apart from those mentioned above, there are several others involved in significant stages of the process. Conclusion After critically examining all these models, it was understood that most of these models have taken into account a number of broad factors which are comprehended according to the model specifications. Most of these models start with the initiation of expectations among the consumers. Certain other factors such as lifestyle of the users, status of the consumers, information sources such as exhibition and shows, advertisements, word- of-mouth may result in influential factors behind the consumers purchasing processes. Certain factors, such as time pressure and inherent risk are quite specific to the respective product and have the ability to put an impact on purchasing process. Apart from these, there can be certain other situational and company specific factors influencing the choice of suppliers (Sheth, 1973). Post-purchase satisfaction also triggers the re-buying process. Reference Baker, J., M Hart, S. 2003. The Marketing Book. Butterworth-Heineman. Dwyer, R., F. Fanner, F., J. 2008. Business Marketing. New York: McGraw Hill. Folsom, D. W. Boulware, R. 2004. Encyclopedia of American business. NewYork: Infobase Publishing. ODougherty, D., Haynes, R., Davies, V. M. OConnor, M. 2007. Consumer Behavior. South Africa: Pearson Education. Sheth, N. J. 1973. A Model of Industrial Buyer Behaviur. [Pdf]. Available at: http://www.jagsheth.net/docs/A%20Model%20of%20Industrial%20BuyerBehavior.pdf [Accessed on November 01, 2010]. The Institute for Working Futures. No Date. Consumer Buying Behavior. [Online]. Available at: http://www.marcbowles.com/courses/adv_dip/module12/chapter4/amc12_ch4_two.htm [Accessed on November 01, 2010]. Tyagi, L., C. Kumar, A. 2004. Consumer Behaviour. Atlantic Publishers Distribution. Swarbrooke, J. Horner, S. 2007. Consumer behaviour in tourism. USA: Elsevier Ltd.

Corporate strategies of Skanska Construction

Corporate strategies of Skanska Construction Strategic planning and strategic management have attracted continuing interest from both researchers and executives over past decades. Strategic decision making although recently taken into account in the construction industry is one of the key drivers of success. Since construction is a project-based and highly fragmented industry, corporate strategies are difficult to develop. Studies so far point out the significance of project management competencies in delivering successful projects, however the organizational performance heavily rely on the effectiveness of the strategic decisions made by the companies based on their competitive resources and the market conditions where they operate. In this work, a world-known construction company, Skanska Construction from Sweden, is taken as a case and its corporate strategies together with its competitive resources are analyzed. Future directions for the company are discussed in the light of the challenges faced by the company. Keywords: Corporate strategy, construction industry, strategic analysis. INTRODUCTION It is generally considered that modern organizations should develop long term strategies in the face of an increasingly dynamic and competitive world. Porter (1980, 1985) suggested that a company needs to develop a competitive strategy in order to achieve competitive advantage in a market economy. Strategy has grown from a practice of military commanders and corporate executives into the field of management science. It has enjoyed contributions from various disciplines such as economics, organizational sociology, political science and cognitive psychology (Rumelt et al., 1994). Differing perspectives of strategy development and implementation have evolved, centering generally on ones view of the capacity and motives of individuals and organizations (Whittington, 2001). Mainstream strategic studies, however, have not typically considered the construction industry, and conventional thought within the industry has often downplayed strategys significance. Strategy is defined as a plan, pattern, position, perspective, and ploy (Mintzberg et al., 1998). Its significant effect on performance is demonstrated empirically in the literature (Porter, 1980). Emphasizing the importance of strategic decision, Child (1972) also stated that companies can achieve higher organizational performance by adopting different competitive positioning alternatives based on strategic decisions. Lately, construction industry researchers have changed this perception to some degree as publications regarding strategic management have increased. Warszawski (1996) outlined a methodological procedure for strategic planning in construction companies. Serving as somewhat of a primer to construction professionals on the topic, he discussed the definition of companys mission, the significance of business environment, and a broad outline of the steps involved in analyzing a companys resources. His elaboration on the development of competitive strategy was based largely on Porters (1980) theory of generic strategy. Chinowsky and Meredith (2000) conducted a survey to identify areas of strategic concern that construction organizations need to emphasize. Venegas and Alarcon (1997) were the first to propose a simplified model of variables affecting strategic decisions before recommending a mathematical model to predict the impact of the decisions. In this paper, the corporate strategies of a very well known Swedish construction company, Skanska Construction, will be analyzed. In doing so, first of all the components of corporate strategy will be investigated based on a literature review. The performance models that examined the importance of strategies and competitive resources will also be included as a part of this study. The major section will deal with Skanskas success based on its corporate strategies and competitive resources. Besides, the external factors including the market conditions together will be discussed along with the future directions of the company. CORPORATE STRATEGY IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY Corporate Strategy Cheah and Garvin (2004) developed a framework to define corporate strategy. The model divides corporate strategy into seven strategic fields as shown in Figure 1. All strategic fields rightly are separate, major components within the realm of corporate strategy. Whereas some strategic models such as Porters (1985) value chain concept treated activities like human resource (HR) management merely as supporting activities, this model casts these strategic fields as distinct areas since they have currently evolved into disciplines requiring separate planning and execution. As evidence, most business schools at present offer separate courses for each of these fields after a general treatment of the topic of strategic management. Figure 1: Framework for corporate strategy (Cheah and Garvin, 2004) The following sections summarize the dimensions of corporate strategy being HR strategy, financial strategy, business strategy, operational strategy, IT strategy, marketing strategy, and technology strategy. HR strategy In essence, HR strategy is more concerned about the aspects of managing human assets of an organization. HR strategy deals with (Cheah and Garvin, 2004): personnel management (e.g. training programs; job rotation among functions and geographical regions); industrial relations (e.g. employment law; union-management relationship; negotiation tactics and strategy); incentives and compensation policies and systems; and restructuring concerns (e.g. downsizing). The goal of HR strategy is to have an effective system for obtaining (recruiting), training, mobilizing and managing the human assets of an organization to systematically carry out business operations and new ventures. Financial strategy There are two fundamental aspects in financial strategy: investment decisions and financing decisions. During investment decisions, firms are confronted with the challenges of capital budgeting and financial resource allocation. In order to make better decisions, managers must select the appropriate tools for project analysis and evaluation, which include, but are not limited to, the net present value (NPV) method, decision tree analysis, optimization, portfolio planning and real option valuation. Behind these tools lies a common and fundamental principle of balancing risk and return (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Financing decisions, on the other hand, are concerned with issues of capital structure. In providing the detailed mechanics, Grinblatt and Titman (1998) showed how investment and financing decisions could impact the corporate strategy as a whole. Business strategy Business strategy is defined as strategies adopted to ensure successful ventures of individual business units, whereas corporate strategy is concerned with operations of the entire organization. This distinction is obviously consistent with the model, since business strategy is one of the seven core fields of the overall structure (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Business strategy formally deals with the development of competitive advantage and core competencies. In particular, Porters (1980, 1985) techniques such as the determination of uniqueness and cost drivers, the Five Forces model, and the market segmentation matrix are some commonly known concepts in formulating business strategy. Operational strategy Operational strategy is primarily concerned with execution and implementation how firms manage their operational processes to convert different inputs into final products and services. These activities might include inbound and outbound logistics, procurement functions, production processes for physical products such as precast components, and procedural functions for service provision. For contractors, these activities are analogous to most project management functions such as material procurement, construction of the physical structure, and management of labor and machinery. Likewise, service firms utilize their expertise and knowledge to assist clients in fulfilling their needs and goals, as in planning, design and engineering functions (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). IT strategy In this conceptual model, IT strategy is separated from technology strategy. Specifically, IT strategy focuses mainly on the use of technology to leverage information to the advantage of a firm. This contrasts with other types of technology development in general. This distinction is justified by the fact that information technology has grown into a separate market segment and research area since the mid-1990s (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). IT is often taken as the driver of corporate strategy. More appropriately, it should be treated as an enabler that connects the corporate strategy of a firm with its operational processes (Ross and Rockart, 1999). In many aspects, the current trends of IT investment and implementation within the construction industry still appear to follow very vague goals. Too often, participants from the industry investing in IT (at least during initial stages) have forgotten their original identity as firms that provide construction services, thereby putting their core competencies at stake. In many cases, these investments are lacking in terms of establishing linkages between processes and corporate strategy in the long run (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Marketing strategy In manufacturing and other industries that sell physical products, the Four Ps (product, price, place and promotion) in conventional marketing management remains relevant at present, though changes in technology and IT have redefined the boundary and meaning of these components (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Although construction is mainly service-oriented (except suppliers or vendors who are selling physical products), many of these concepts can be applied to selected parts of the construction value chain. For example, in terms of promotion, marketing strategy is especially important in signaling to clients the value created from the design of products and services in order to demand a price premium differentiation is meaningless unless clients are able to perceive the value added that suits their unique needs. To achieve this, firms need to identify both needs (demand) and resources (supply factors), and choose the most efficient means of service provision. Some common corporate involv ement in marketing strategy includes: umbrella branding and reputation building; logistics issues (a critical factor toward lean construction); and collection of information about clients needs (e.g. to improve facility operation and maintenance) (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Technology strategy Tatum (1988) illustrated that the range of possible technology-based strategies for construction firms is wide. At present, choices and means for technology development still remain as the most basic questions in technology strategy. Three primary issues particularly stand out. The first issue is the notion of pioneer versus follower. Not surprisingly, whether one should be at the bleeding edge of the technology wave as a first mover is always a tough decision to make. This is especially true when technological trends are shaped by uncertain environmental factors. The second issue deals with integration. Large Japanese contractors, for example, have their own research institutes and tend to develop their technology internally. Third, firms have to assess the relative importance between basic and applied research in order to allocate resources accordingly (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Corporate performance in construction Based on Isiks (2009) work, a construction companys performance is mainly determined by the strategic decisions made and resources and capabilities of the firm. External factors, strength of relationships, project management competencies, and project performance are the other factors of success. These variables are listed in Table 1. Since this papers major objective is to discuss the corporate strategy and competitive resources impacting on the success of a construction firm, the main emphasis is on the strategic decisions and resources and capabilities leading to success as defined by Isik (2009). Construction organizations have long been criticized for a lack of long-term strategic planning and management (Veshoskyi, 1994; Chinovsky and Meredith, 2000). The literature on strategic decision-making is spread over a wide range from an individual strategists perspective to strategic management techniques, to the implementation of these techniques in real situations (Globerson, 1985; Letza, 1996; Warszawski, 1996; Neely et al., 1997). The strategies adopted in Isiks (2009) work represent the characteristics of the construction industry as a project-based organization. These strategies are summarized in the following section. Table 1: Factors affecting the corporate performance for construction firms (Isik, 2009) Corporate strategies in construction firms: Corporate strategy can be seen as the linking process between the management of the organizations internal resources and its external relationships with its customers, suppliers, competitors and the economic and social environment in which it exists. The organisation develops these relationships from its abilities and resources. Hence, the organisation uses its history, skills, resources, knowledge and various concepts to explore its future actions (Adnan and Jusoff, 2009). The industry environment is the set of factors that directly influences a firm and its competitive actions and competitive response; the threats of new entrants, the power of suppliers, the power of buyers, the threat of product substitutes and the intensity of rivalry among competitors. An opportunity is a condition in the general environment that if, exploited helps a company achieve strategic competitiveness. A threat is a condition in the general environment that may hinder a companys efforts to achieve strate gic competitiveness. The resources of an organisation include its human resource skills, the investment and the capital in every part of the organisation. Organisations need to develop corporate strategies to optimise the use of these resources. Differentiation strategies refer to the differentiation of products or services that provides competitive advantage and allows a company to deal effectively with the threat of new entrants to the market (Porter, 1980). Many new construction companies enter the industry every year because starting a new company does not require a large investment; consequently the construction industry becomes more competitive and forces existing companies to seek advantages over competitors by means of differentiation strategies. Market, project, client and partner selection strategies are related to the characteristics of construction projects such as the location and complexity of the project, environmental conditions, availability of competent subcontractors, availability of materials, equipment and know-how locally, financial stability of the client, and potential partners that have capabilities that the company does not possess. Project management strategies can be developed by referring to the mission of the company and the companys business environment. The managerial functions of a project include activities such as planning, cost control, quality control, risk management, safety management, to name but a few. In order to achieve project goals, adequate strategies have to be set up relative to these functions. Investment strategies occur along several dimensions such as capabilities of the company (resources), pricing (financial decisions), product (construction project related factors), and finally research and development (Spence, 1979). Organizational management strategies involve decisions pertaining to the companys reporting structure, planning, controlling and coordinating systems, as well as the management of the informal relations among the different parties within the company (Barney, 1991). Resources and capabilities: The strategic management literature defines resources and capabilities as the strengths of a company. Given the competitive environment among the rivals, resources and capabilities cannot be assumed to be identical in every company (Porter, 1980; Barney, 1991). According to the resource-based perspective mentioned by Barney (1991), a companys resources and capabilities have to be valuable, rare, inimitable, and should lack substitutes to have a positive effect on performance. Only if these conditions are met can resources and capabilities be transformed into a source of competitive advantage (Barney 1991). It follows that a construction companys equipment, manpower, technical, and managerial know-how should be efficient, cost-effective, rare, and sophisticated enough to prevent imitation by competitors. Financial resources indicate a companys strength in the market in terms of its capacity to carry out projects. Adequate financial resources ensure the company can get into risky situations that have a prospect of high returns. As a companys financial strength increases, its credibility and reputation also increases among clients and suppliers (Warszawski, 1996). The majority of construction projects are funded by the owner who pays the contractor periodically, who in turn pays the subcontractors, the suppliers and other parties of the project for services rendered. The success of this routine depends on the financial strength of the owner as well as of the contractor (Gunhan and Arditi, 2005). Technical competency refer to the physical assets of a company such as machinery and equipment and the extent of technical know-how available that is necessary to undertake specific projects. According to Warszawski (1996), a companys technical competency can be assessed by analyzing the companys preferred construction methods, the experience of its technical staff, the productivity and speed of its construction activities and the quality of the companys output. Leadership involves developing and communicating mission, vision, and values to the members of an organization. A successful leadership is expected to create an environment for empowerment, innovation, learning and support (Shirazi, 1996). Researchers have examined the links between leadership styles and performance. Fiedler (1996), have emphasized the effectiveness of a leader as a major determinant in success or failure of a group, organization, or even an entire country. Experience is highly related to a companys knowledge management competency. Organizational learning can be effective only if the lessons learned from completed projects are kept in the organizational memory and used in future projects (Kululanga and McCaffer, 2001). Organizational learning is difficult for companies because of the fragmented and project-based structure of the industry. This difficulty can be altered by knowledge management activities and provision of a continuous organizational learning culture (Ozorhon et al., 2005). The image of the company compared with its competitors is important. As in all market-oriented industries, contractors also need to portray an image that fits the needs of the market and the clients targeted. It gives an impression of the products, services, strategies, and prospects compare to its competitors (Fombrun and Shanley, 1990). Contractors in construction industry have to portray an image that addresses the expectation and demand of the clients and users, like in all other market oriented industries. Moreover, image of a company may enable higher profitability by attracting better clients and investors and increasing the value of the product (Fombrun, 1986). Research and development capability is a response to increased industry requirements that occurred as a result of globalization and competition between the companies. Developments occur in all phases of the construction process and technologies emerge that are deemed to have a positive impact on competitive advantage. In contrast to the traditional conservative stance of the industry, construction companies are forced to develop and adopt new technologies in order to survive. Innovation capability is an important factor in achieving cost leadership, focus, and differentiation, hence enhancing competitiveness as stated in Porter (1980). A companys ability to innovate is related to the industry in which it operates. The traditional characteristics of the construction favor cost leadership obtained through lowest bids and focus obtained through specialization (e.g., tall buildings, sewage systems etc.) as the predominant competitive advantages. According to Arditi et al. (1997) innovations are rather incremental than radical in construction industry. The construction is a supplier dominated industry. Construction companies are dependent on other industries for innovations such as construction materials, equipment other than the technological innovations such as new construction processes and methods. Alternative corporate structures, financing methods etc. can also be added as the potential innovation areas in construction industry (Arditi et al. 1997). SKANSKA CONSTRUCTIONS CORPORATE STRATEGY Skanska AB is one of the worlds largest construction enterprises. With headquarters in Sweden, the Skanska group employs 54,000 people worldwide and provides construction-related services and project development. They create sustainable solutions and aim to be a leader in quality, green construction, work safety and business ethics. They also aim to maximize the potential of Skanska with regard to returns. They are a Fortune 500 company and a member of the UN Global Compact. Skanska is one of the worlds ten largest construction companies. Background of Skanska A brief history of Skanska is found in the website that reads (Skanska, 2010): The origin of the company dates back to 1887 when Aktiebolaget Skà ¥nska Cementgjuteriet was established and started by manufacturing concrete products. We quickly diversified into a construction company and within ten years the company received its first international orders. Through the 20th Century we played an important role in building Swedens infrastructure, including roads, power plants, offices and housing. In the mid-1950s, Skà ¥nska Cementgjuteriet made a major move into international markets. During the next decades we entered South America, Africa and Asia, and in 1971 the US market. The US is now our largest market and Skanska ranks among the largest in the construction sector. Today, Africa and Asia are not included in our home market concept. The company was listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange A-list in 1965. In 1984 Skanska became the Groups official name. During the 1990s, Skanska initiated its most expansive phase ever. Sales doubled in only a few years. While the major portion of this growth was organic, a string of successful acquisitions also paved the way for Skanskas growth into a global company. Since the beginning of the 21st Century profitability rather than growth is a strong focus. The operations are streamlined to construction and development of residential, commercial and infrastructure projects in selected home markets in Europe and America. Skanska offers construction services in all of their home markets Sweden, the US, UK, Norway, Finland and Estonia, Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia and in Latin America. Skanskas management structure is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2: Skanskas management structure (Skanska, 2009) Skanska aims to be a financial and qualitative leader. Their financial targets reflect the ambition to exceed the industry norm. In each of their geographic markets and specific segments, they have established what we call outperform targets. In addition to the financial targets and as means to reach them they have also adopted qualitative targets. The qualitative targets are expressed in Skanskas five zeros vision (Skanska, 2010): Zero loss-making projects. Loss makers destroy profitability and customer relationships Zero accidents, whereby the safety of their personnel as well as subcontractors, suppliers and general public is ensured at and around their projects Zero environmental incidents, by which their projects should be executed in a manner that minimizes environmental impact Zero ethical breaches, meaning that they take a zero tolerance approach to any form of bribery or corruption Zero defects, with the double aim of improving the bottom line and increasing customer satisfaction. The qualitative targets, as expressed in the five zeros, reflect their core values. The five zeros as well as the financial targets also provide the basis for incentive systems at various levels within Skanska. Markets of operation and market strategies of Skanska Skanska is active in selected home markets in Europe, the US and Latin America. In the US, which is their single largest market, they are a leading company within building and civil engineering projects. They are also targeting the US Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) segment. In the Nordic region, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland, their operations cover the construction and investment businesses. In Latin America, they are mainly active in the oil, gas and energy sector and in PPP. In the UK, they are a leading player in construction as well as within PPP. In 2006, there were 67 891 companies operating in the construction sector in Sweden. The biggest companies are Skanska, NCC and Peab. There has been an increase in the competition from foreign companies over the last years. It has been a rising market in 2006-2007. During the last four years the investments have increased with 5-10 %. However, due to the current market weakness, there was a decline in 2009. There is no legislation in Sweden stipulating how construction work and services should be performed. Instead, there are general conditions which have been developed by organizations and parties operating within the Swedish Construction Sector. Figure 3 shows the geographical markets of operation of Skanska including Sweeden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Estonia, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, UK, US, and Latin America. Figure 3: Markets of operation of Skanska (Skanska, 2010) Skanska attaches special importance to metropolitan regions, which often demonstrate higher growth than their respective country as a whole. Skanska offers many of the products and services that are needed in growing cities workplaces, schools, hospitals, sports and leisure facilities, as well as housing and infrastructure for transportation, energy and water. In individual markets, Skanska operates today only in certain segments, but by taking advantage of its collective expertise, the Group can enhance its opportunities for growth and higher earnings in these markets (Skanska, 2009). Competitive advantage of Skanska (resources and capabilities) In Isik et als (2010) work, resources and capabilities was found to be most influential on company performance. The critical importance of the resources and capabilities of a company was also emphasized in the literature. The strategic management literature defines resources and capabilities as the strengths of a company. Given the competitive environment among the rivals, resources and capabilities cannot be assumed to be identical in every company (Porter, 1980; Barney, 1991). Skanskas distinctive resources that create competitive advantage for them are as follows (Skanska, 2009): Size: Being a market leader positions Skanska well with the most demanding customers. Its stature also provides access to the best suppliers, which can live up to Skanskas promises to customers regarding timely delivery and quality as well as safety and ethics. Skanskas size gives it an advantage in the most complex assignments, where it uses its collective experience and know-how to meet the demands of customers. Only a few companies can compete for the type of projects where, aside from price, comprehensive solutions and lifecycle costs are of crucial importance. The Groups size and international profile are also attractive qualities in the recruitment of new employees. Technical competency: BIM, a computer-based method for detailed panning, coordination and more efficient execution à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ shall be used in Skanskas design-build projects, in which Skanska is responsible for both design and construction. BIM means greater standardization and also improves Skanskas ability to utilize the savings potential of its corporate-level purchasing efforts. Human resources: Skanskas skilled, dedicated employees combine expertise with the Groups overall focus on sustainable development in order to successfully deliver projects to customers. The Groups ability to transfer knowledge between different geographic markets also contributes to its strength. Image of the company: Skanskas brand has been built up during more than 120 years of working in many different countries. One element of the brand is the Groups Code of Conduct, which includes policies on employee relations, health and safety, the environment and business ethics. Financial resources: Financial strength is an important factor in maintaining the confidence of customers and capital markets in Skanska. It also enables the Group to invest in project development and assume responsibility for and invest in major privately financed infrastructure projects. Innovation capability: Business units of the Skanska Group specialize in project development or construction but often collaborate in specific projects. This strengthens the Groups customer focus and creates the prerequisites for the sharing of best practices, while ensuring efficient utilization of the Groups collective competence and financial resources. To take further advantage of synergies and bring together the Companys expertise, a number of support services are available to all units. These include the Skanska Knowledge Map, a web-based intranet tool that visualizes experts and teams of experts from Skanska on a global basis in selected strategic areas, for example Building Information Modeling (BIM), Green Business and Design/Build. By utilizing its specialized expertise in planning and executing projects, Skanska improves risk control, which in turn results in higher quality and profitability. Global collaboration thus leverages both earnings potential and the Groups abilit y to satisfy the needs of its customers. In the Skanska Group there are both operational and financial synergies that generate increased value for their shareholders. By being a global player, Skanska generates operational synergies mainly due to the potential for taking advantage of the local specialized expertise found globally in various business areas. Shared purchasing activities and product development also boost efficiency and contribute to greater synergies in the organization. The Construction business stream operates with negative working capital and generates a positive cash flow over time. This cash flow is invested in the Groups project development business streams, which have enjoyed very good return on invested capital. These investments also enable Construction to obtain new assignments that generate a profit for the business stream. Figure 4 illustrates how this system works. Figure 4: Synergies at Ska

An Analysis Of Tibets Governmental System and the Dalai Lama as Head o

An Analysis Of Tibet's Governmental System and the Dalai Lama as Head of State Throughout history, society has created many different governmental systems in order to organize society in terms of law and authority. Many have failed in their purpose but others have remained steadfast in their goals and have prospered. To fundamentally understand why this pattern occurs, we must understand the true function and purpose of government. Government serves two functions. Internally, government should serve the function as the ultimate enforcer of norms, the final arbitration of conflicting interests, and control the overall planning and direction of society. Externally, government should serve the function as the handler of war and the agent for diplomacy. Therefore, government acts as the agent of the entire people and enjoys a monopoly of force.[1] If a government fails, it fails in its function. An example of a governmental system that has held these functions in high regard and has remained steadfast is Tibet before the Chinese occupation in 19 50, with the integration Buddhism into a political system where the head of state is a religious figure, the position of Dalai Lama. Many have debated and criticized the mixture of religion and government but Tibet is an exception to the rule and these sentiments. There are many different factors that led to the stabilization and prosperity of the Tibetan state before the Chinese communist occupation in 1950. Most fundamentally, the integration of religion in a political system is maintained only in a society where the priesthood is seen as the highest general position and where membership in the profession is rigidly controlled by the priestly guild itself. This aw... ..., 1979. 3.Davis, Kingsley and Wilbert E. Moore. â€Å"Some Principals of Stratification†. American Sociological Review. 10: 242-249, 1945. 4. Diamond, Larry. â€Å"Three Paradoxes of Democracy.† The Global Resurgence of Democracy. Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, 1996. 5. Harrer, Heinrich. Seven Years in Tibet. Putnam: New York, 1997. 6. Harris, Ian. ed. Buddhism and Politics: in 20th century Asia. Pinter: New York, 1999 7. Rahul, Ram. The Government & Politics of Tibet. Vikas: New Delhi, 1969. 8. Samuel, Geoffrey. â€Å"Tibet as a Stateless Society and some Islamic Parallels.† The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. 41, No. 2 (Feb. 1982), 215-229. 9. Shakabpa, Tsepon. Tibet: A Political History. Potala Publications: New York, 1984. 10. Verhaegan, Ardy. The Dalai Lamas: The Institution and Its History. D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.: New Delhi, 2002.

Animal Cruelty :: Psychology, Conduct Disorder

For one to completely understand animal cruelty one must know how animal cruelty is categorized. Animal cruelty was first categorized as a symptom of conduct disorder by the American Psychiatric Association in 1987 (McPhedran; 2008). Conduct disorder is defined as â€Å"a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others are major age appropriate societal norms or rules are violated† (American Psychiatric Association; 1994 as cited as McPhedran; 2008). To be diagnosed with conduct disorder, a person must have at least 3 of the 15 symptoms of the disorder presented. Other symptoms of conduct disorder include persistent patterns of aggression towards humans, lying and deception, theft and/or robbery, and destruction of property (American Psychiatric Association; 1994 as cited as McPhedran; 2008). There is variety of studies that shows that their factors that influence people’s judgments about cruelty. Attitudes about abuse and neglect can be reliably differentiated among both men and women; women tend to more empathic towards the animals that were abused; men and women differ with the regard to the structure of their attitude (Henry; 2008). The attitude about animal abuse differ between women and men is because men reflect a lower level of empathy than women, and that can result in men judging acts of violence differently (Pakaslanhti & Keltikanga- Jarvinen; 1997 as cited as Henry; 2008). Research has found that women have a stronger and broader moral strictures against aggression than men do (Perry, Perry & Rasmussen; 1986 as cited as Henry; 2008). Women appear to have a broader scope of what constitutes cruelty than men. When it comes to punishing people for abusing animals’ research showed that women recommended harsher punishments for acts of animal abuse than men and that recommended punishments were harsher when the victim was a puppy compared to when the victim was a chicken (Henry; 2008). When it comes to be mind set of describing animal abuse the type of animals was similar and it depended on the type of animal that was victimized for them to consider it was animal cruelty (Henry; 2008). A person mood at the moment of being questioned about punishment for animal cruelty depended if they wanted punishment are not. Results indicated that participants in a positive mood-state recommended harsher punishments for animal cruelty for the perpetrator of the abuse (Henry; 2008). People also recommended harsher punishment when the animal-victim was perceived as being more similar to humans (Henry; 2008). Animal Cruelty :: Psychology, Conduct Disorder For one to completely understand animal cruelty one must know how animal cruelty is categorized. Animal cruelty was first categorized as a symptom of conduct disorder by the American Psychiatric Association in 1987 (McPhedran; 2008). Conduct disorder is defined as â€Å"a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others are major age appropriate societal norms or rules are violated† (American Psychiatric Association; 1994 as cited as McPhedran; 2008). To be diagnosed with conduct disorder, a person must have at least 3 of the 15 symptoms of the disorder presented. Other symptoms of conduct disorder include persistent patterns of aggression towards humans, lying and deception, theft and/or robbery, and destruction of property (American Psychiatric Association; 1994 as cited as McPhedran; 2008). There is variety of studies that shows that their factors that influence people’s judgments about cruelty. Attitudes about abuse and neglect can be reliably differentiated among both men and women; women tend to more empathic towards the animals that were abused; men and women differ with the regard to the structure of their attitude (Henry; 2008). The attitude about animal abuse differ between women and men is because men reflect a lower level of empathy than women, and that can result in men judging acts of violence differently (Pakaslanhti & Keltikanga- Jarvinen; 1997 as cited as Henry; 2008). Research has found that women have a stronger and broader moral strictures against aggression than men do (Perry, Perry & Rasmussen; 1986 as cited as Henry; 2008). Women appear to have a broader scope of what constitutes cruelty than men. When it comes to punishing people for abusing animals’ research showed that women recommended harsher punishments for acts of animal abuse than men and that recommended punishments were harsher when the victim was a puppy compared to when the victim was a chicken (Henry; 2008). When it comes to be mind set of describing animal abuse the type of animals was similar and it depended on the type of animal that was victimized for them to consider it was animal cruelty (Henry; 2008). A person mood at the moment of being questioned about punishment for animal cruelty depended if they wanted punishment are not. Results indicated that participants in a positive mood-state recommended harsher punishments for animal cruelty for the perpetrator of the abuse (Henry; 2008). People also recommended harsher punishment when the animal-victim was perceived as being more similar to humans (Henry; 2008).

The White Doe, by Francesco Petrarch Essay -- TPCASTT for The White Doe

Title: When looking at this poem's title, one can get many ideas of what the poem will be about. One of the ideas that I got when I read the title was that it was going to be about a white female deer that was being hunted by a hunter. Another one that I thought up was that a white deer is an angel from heaven that will save someone. The last idea that I came up with was that it was about a white deer that was camouflaged in some snow to escape a predator. Paraphrase: In the first stanza, the speaker mainly describes the doe and its surroundings. The speaker says that the doe is all white with golden antlers. The speaker says that the doe is standing in the shade between two streams in a green opening in a forest. In the second stanza, the speaker tells how he left his work to follow the doe because she was so beautiful. The doe must have run off into the woods because he compares his looking for the doe to a miser searching for his treasure. He also seems to be happy while he is looking for the doe. In the third stanza, he finds the doe once more. The way I interpreted this stanza was that the doe was wearing a collar with a diamond on it. I came to this conclusion because the stanza's first two lines say, "Around her lovely neck 'Do not touch me'/Was written with topaz and diamond stone[.]" It seems as though the doe was once owned by someone because the stanza continues the inscription on what I believe to be the collar: "'My Caesar 's will has been to make me free.'" I think it is some kind of ghost deer that was once owned by Julius Caesar. The last stanza basically says that he was chasing the deer until noon. He says that he was so tired he could barely see, and he fell into the stream. When he got out the doe was gone... ... Title: The title is the subject of the poem. It is not a very specific title so the reader can make many inferences about what the poem will be about. The title just simply says "The White Doe." It does not say "The White Doe that was Spotted by a man Working in the Woods and Decides to Follow but falls into a Stream." So until the reader actually reads the poem, he or she will not really know what the poem will be about. The title contributes to the overall effect of the poem because the white doe is the subject of poetry in the poem. Theme: What the poet is trying to tell the world is that just because someone throws something a way does not mean one can take it from the garbage and keep it as his or her own. If the person that threw the object away wanted someone else to have it, he or she would put it up for sale or give it away.

Ohm’s Law Series-Parallel Circuits Calculation Essay

To end up the discussion of Series-Parallel Circuits, I would like to post this last one remaining topic which is about Ohm’s Law of Series-Parallel Circuits for currents and voltages. I did not even mentioned in my previous topics on how to deal with its currents and voltages regarding this type of circuit connection. Ohms Law in Series-Parallel Circuits Ohm’s Law in Series-Parallel Circuits – Current The total current of the series-parallel circuits depends on the total resistance offered by the circuit when connected across the voltage source. The current flow in the entire circuit and it will divide to flow through parallel branches. In case of parallel branch, the current is inversely proportional to the resistance of the branch – that is the greater current flows through the least resistance and vice-versa. Then, the current will then sum up again after flowing in different circuit branch which is the same as the current source or total current. The total circuit current is the same at each end of a series-parallel circuit, and is equal to the current flow through the voltage source. Ohm’s Law in Series-Parallel Circuits – Voltage The voltage drop across a series-parallel circuits also occur the same way as in series and parallel circuits. In series parts of the circuit, the voltage drop depends on the individual values of the resistors. In parallel parts of the circuit, the voltage across each branch are the same and carries a current depends on the individual values of the resistors. If in case of circuit below, the voltage of the series resistance forming a branch of the parallel circuit will divide the voltage across the parallel circuit. If in case of the single resistance in a parallel branch, the voltage across is the same as the sum of the voltages of the series  resistances. The sum of the voltage across R3 and R4 is the same   as the voltage across R2. Finally, the sum of the voltage drop across each paths between the two terminal of the series-parallel circuit is the same as the total voltage applied to the circuit. Let’s have a very simple example of this calculation for this topic. Considering the circuit below with its given values, lets calculate the total current, current and voltage drop across each resistances. What is the total current, current and voltage across each resistancesHere is the simple calculation of the circuit above: a. Calculate first the total resistance of the circuit: The equivalent resistance for R2 and R3 is: R2-3 = 25X50/ 25+50 = 16.67 ohms R total = 30 ohms + 16.67 ohms = 46.67 ohms b. Calculate the Total Current using Ohm’s Law: I1 = 120V / 46.67 Ohms = 2.57 Amp. Since R1 is in series connection, the total current is the same for that path. c. Calculating the voltage drop for R1: VR1 = 2.57 Amp x 30 ohms = 77.1 volts d. Calculate the voltage drop across R2 and R3. Since the equivalent resistance for R2 and R3 as calculated above is 16.67 ohms, we can now calculate the voltage across each branch. VR2 = VR3 = 2.57 Amp x 16.67 ohms = 42. 84 volts e. Finally, we can now calculate the individual current for R2 and R3: I2 = VR2 / R2 = 42.84 volts / 25 ohms = 1.71 Amp. I3 = VR3 / R3 = 42.84 volts / 50 ohms = 0.86 Amp. You may also check if the current in each path of the parallel branch are correct by adding its currents: I1 = I2 + I3 = 1.71 Amp + 0.86 Amp = 2.57 Amp. which is the same as calculated above. Therefore, we can say that our answer is correct.

Netflix Reaction Paper

Netflix: Responding to Blockbuster Again The concept covered in the discussion on Netflix responding to blockbuster is an interesting topic. Netflix is a great example of disruptive innovation. Its DVD-by-mail turned the video rental business on its head and helped push Blockbuster into bankruptcy. As a start-up and outsider, Netflix was able to see that Blockbuster underserved many users. In response, Netflix created a business that offered more affordability, accessibility and availability to these under-served customers.Netflix saw this as a great opportunity and with customers busier lifestyles, demand and the advancement in the technology, Netflix made a move and serve the underserved customers of Blockbuster. Netflix is definitely the most successful of these Blockbuster-replacement services and has been steadily gaining power over the years. They started out as a DVD rentals-by-mail service and business has been booming ever since they introduced a streaming subscription servi ce as well. The rise of internet media also raised the success of Netflix.Blockbuster’s demise was linked to the success of Netflix. The business model of Netflix focuses on addressing unmet needs on the part of consumers. The business model for video rental industry back then in early 2000 was to pay-per-rental. Customers were frustrated by late fees and not being able to find their movie of choice when they wanted it. Netflix used a design principle that any company aspiring to succeed at disruptive innovation must adopt – Think Big. Start Small. Fail Quickly. Scale Fast. Think Big.Netflix pursued the big idea of streaming video, even though it would render obsolete its mail-based system for distributing DVDs. By contrast, most companies think small—they try to protect their existing business even if they can see a long-term threat from the Internet or other technological disrupter. These companies tell themselves they’re making incremental improvements , only to wake up one day and find the world has changed. When that day comes, they switch to panic mode, as Blockbuster did once it realized Netflix had transformed DVD distribution. Start Small. Netflix started with lots of small projects.This way, the company would know the market reaction and work out the kinks before going national. Fail Quickly. When early efforts at streaming video looked iffy, Netflix adopted the poker player’s mantra that most money is lost early in a hand, when the tendency is to hope that something good will materialize even though reason suggests otherwise. Netflix folded, saving its money for the day when it finally got a good hand. By contrast, most companies keep playing bad hands far too long, partly because those involved know they’ll get tarnished by association with a failure.Scale Fast. Netflix is now scaling streaming video fast, maintaining the lead it worked so hard to build over competitors. Numerous companies have, however, won early battles and lost the war at this stage of innovation. Innovations are successfully developed but never find a home because, unlike Netflix, the company isn’t willing to attack its core business. It’s worth noting that Netflix is still very much a work in progress and should continue its quest to bold innovations in order to maintain its current competitive advantage.